This article was written by Heather UJ Nependa and Karen Codling of the AfriCat Foundation. The findings reported were presented at the Southern African Wildlife Management Association (SAWMA) conference in 2025 and draw on eight years of long-term research into Temminck’s ground pangolin at Okonjima Nature Reserve in Namibia. The article explores what researchers are learning about one of Africa’s most elusive mammals through GPS telemetry, camera traps, genetic sampling and long-term monitoring, from how far pangolin move and where they occur to dispersal, population structure and changes in body condition. For anyone interested in pangolin conservation, wildlife research, or the science taking place behind the scenes at Okonjima, this article offers a look at how years of patient fieldwork are gradually revealing the hidden lives of these nocturnal mammals.
A nocturnal encounter in the thornbush
On a still Namibian night at Okonjima, the beam of a red torch tracks slowly across dense thornbush. A Temminck’s ground pangolin moves ahead, its scales catching brief flashes of light as it feeds methodically on ants and termites. Every few minutes, the signal from its GPS collar updates quietly through the LoRaWAN network, confirming its position somewhere in the darkness.
This is the type of moment that underpins eight years of continuous fieldwork at Okonjima Nature Reserve. What begins as a single animal moving through the savannah becomes part of a long-term dataset revealing how one of Africa’s least understood mammals uses space, responds to environmental change, and persists in a human-modified landscape.
The pangolin problem: why Temminck’s ground pangolin remains poorly understood
The Temminck’s ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) is one of Africa’s most distinctive yet least studied mammals. It is solitary, nocturnal, and naturally occurs at low densities. Most of its life is spent underground or moving through dense vegetation while foraging for ants and termites.These traits make systematic study difficult. Direct observation is rare, and traditional ecological sampling methods often fail to capture meaningful data.
At the same time, the species is under increasing pressure. Temminck’s ground pangolin is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, with a declining population trend (Pietersen et al. 2019), and is included in Appendix I of CITES, which prohibits international commercial trade in the species. Threats include illegal wildlife trafficking, habitat transformation, and mortality linked to infrastructure development. As one of the most trafficked mammals globally, pangolin represent a conservation priority where basic ecological information remains a limiting factor for effective management.
Why Okonjima matters for pangolin research
Long-term ecological studies are essential for species with slow life histories, low reproductive rates, and cryptic behaviour. Many ecological processes only become visible over multiple years of observation.
The Okonjima Nature Reserve in central-northern Namibia provides a rare opportunity to conduct such research. The AfriCat Foundation’s pangolin programme was formally established in 2018, following a pilot study confirming a resident population within the reserve. Since then, Okonjima has become one of the few landscapes in southern Africa where individual pangolin can be monitored over multiple years within a protected but ecologically realistic savannah system.
How we study pangolin: methods and monitoring system
Research at Okonjima integrates multiple complementary methods to overcome the challenges of studying a cryptic, nocturnal species. The study area covers approximately 22,000 hectares of semi-arid thornbush savannah, allowing researchers to examine both protected habitat use and interface dynamics with surrounding farmland.
Tracked individuals are fitted with GPS and VHF transmitters, allowing movement monitoring and nocturnal relocation. These devices operate through a LoRaWAN network developed with Smart Parks, enabling near real-time data transmission across the reserve. Spatial data are visualised and analysed using the EarthRanger platform.
Camera traps positioned at burrows and along movement corridors provide independent records of activity and presence. Together, these datasets reduce reliance on any single detection method. Individual identification is supported through photographic records, while opportunistic genetic sampling (skin collected beneath scales) is used to investigate relatedness and population structure. Repeated body mass measurements provide information on condition, growth, and seasonal variability.
Eight years of data: emerging ecological patterns
Findings presented here were shared at the Southern African Wildlife Management Association (SAWMA) conference in 2025. These results represent early analyses from a growing long-term dataset. Given the inherent challenges of pangolin research, including tag failure, uneven sampling effort, and small sample sizes, all results should be interpreted cautiously. However, consistent monitoring is beginning to reveal robust ecological signals.
Space use: how far do pangolin move?
Movement data derived from GPS telemetry, direct observation, and camera traps show substantial variation among individuals.
Using Local Convex Hull (LoCoH) analysis, the estimated 95% home ranges were:
- Adult males: 12.64 ± 3.64 km²
- Adult females: 3.75 ± 2.50 km²
Male home ranges were approximately three times larger than those of females, although female space use was more variable.
Spatial mapping indicates clustering of activity in the east-central region of the reserve, with significant overlap between individuals. This suggests the presence of preferred habitat zones within the broader savannah matrix.
Several individuals displayed directional movement patterns inconsistent with residency and were classified as dispersers, highlighting the importance of distinguishing transient from resident animals in spatial analyses.
Density and distribution: how many pangolin are present?
Across Okonjima, a crude density estimate of approximately 0.12 individuals per km² was derived from combined telemetry, sighting, and camera trap records. This estimate includes all age classes but excludes individuals with insufficient data for reliable classification. Sampling effort was not uniform across the landscape, and detection probability varied spatially and temporally.
Grid-based analyses indicate heterogeneous distribution, with higher concentrations of records in the east-central reserve. Some areas show no detections over extended periods, suggesting either habitat preferences, sampling bias, or seasonal movement dynamics. Published estimates from southern Africa range from approximately 0.23 to 0.31 individuals per km², though direct comparison is limited by methodological differences and landscape context.
Dispersal behaviour: leavers and settlers
Four individuals exhibited clear dispersal behaviour, including both males and females. Two left the reserve boundary and were subsequently relocated for safety before being released into lower-density areas outside the core population zone.
These individuals showed no evidence of reproductive activity during monitoring periods and were typically observed alone. These observations suggest that dispersal may be associated with sub-adult life stages, although longer-term tracking is required to confirm this pattern. Individual variation in movement behaviour is pronounced, reinforcing the need for multi-year datasets when interpreting space use and population structure.
Genetics and population structure: early insights
Genetic sampling has identified at least three matrilines within the study population. This confirms that non-invasive genetic material can be used to investigate relatedness and reproductive structure in wild pangolin.
As the dataset expands, it will allow assessment of:
- Gene flow within the reserve
- Reproductive connectivity
- Potential population sub-structuring
- Conservation management units
These data will also contribute to broader questions of landscape connectivity in semi-arid systems.
Body condition, seasonality, and survival
Repeated body mass measurements collected over multiple years are beginning to reveal seasonal and interannual variation in body condition. Early patterns suggest that weight fluctuates in association with environmental variability, including rainfall and vegetation dynamics.
These datasets are being integrated with:
- CHELSA climate variables
- NOAA Vegetation Health Index
- On-site meteorological and vegetation monitoring
This multi-layered approach will allow testing of how climate variability and prey availability influence physiological condition and survival.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is a Temminck’s ground pangolin?
The Temminck’s ground pangolin is a nocturnal, scale-covered mammal native to southern and eastern Africa. It feeds almost exclusively on ants and termites and is adapted for a solitary, burrowing lifestyle. Its cryptic behaviour and low population density make it difficult to study in the wild.
Why are pangolin so difficult to study?
Pangolin are active primarily at night, spend significant time underground, and occur at low densities across large areas. These traits limit direct observation and reduce detection probability using standard ecological survey methods.
Why is pangolin research important in Namibia?
Namibia supports populations of Temminck’s ground pangolin within semi-arid savannah systems. Research in this context is important for understanding how the species responds to environmental variability, land-use change, and conservation management. This information is essential for developing region-specific conservation strategies.
What makes Okonjima Nature Reserve important for pangolin research?
Okonjima provides a controlled but ecologically realistic landscape where pangolin can be monitored over long periods. The presence of a resident population and the ability to track individuals across years make it one of the few sites in southern Africa generating long-term ecological data on this species.
How are pangolin tracked at Okonjima?
Selected individuals are fitted with GPS and VHF transmitters. These devices transmit location data via a LoRaWAN system, allowing near real-time tracking. Data are processed and visualised using platforms such as EarthRanger.
What have researchers learned about pangolin movement?
Tracking data show that adult males typically occupy larger home ranges than females. At Okonjima, male home ranges average approximately 12.6 km², while females average around 3.8 km². There is considerable overlap between individuals, and some animals exhibit dispersal behaviour rather than stable residency.
How many pangolin live at Okonjima?
Current estimates suggest a density of approximately 0.12 individuals per km². This figure should be interpreted cautiously due to uneven sampling effort and detection limitations. Pangolin densities are inherently difficult to estimate accurately.
Do pangolin stay in one area or move widely?
Both patterns occur. Some individuals maintain relatively stable home ranges, while others disperse across larger distances. Dispersal appears to be associated with certain life stages, potentially linked to sub-adult development.
What threats do pangolin face?
Pangolin are threatened by illegal wildlife trafficking, habitat transformation, and infrastructure-related mortality. They are considered one of the most trafficked mammal groups globally, which significantly contributes to population declines.
What role does genetics play in pangolin research?
Genetic sampling allows researchers to identify related individuals and understand population structure. At Okonjima, early analyses have identified multiple matrilines, providing insight into reproduction, gene flow, and connectivity.
How does climate affect pangolin?
Preliminary findings indicate that body condition varies with environmental factors such as rainfall and vegetation productivity. Ongoing work integrates climate datasets with ecological monitoring to assess how these variables influence survival and behaviour.
Can visitors contribute to pangolin conservation?
Yes. Supporting conservation organisations such as AfriCat Foundation, visiting reserves that invest in research, and raising awareness about wildlife trafficking all contribute to pangolin conservation efforts. Some reserves may also offer educational or tracking-related experiences that directly support research programmes.
Where can I learn more about pangolin conservation?
Further information is available on
AfriCat’s Pangolin Research Project Page
and through conservation organisations, scientific publications, and global frameworks such as the IUCN Red List and CITES. Engaging with these resources provides a broader understanding of pangolin conservation challenges and progress.
Why long-term research changes what we know
The primary strength of the Okonjima pangolin programme lies in its continuity. Long-term monitoring makes it possible to observe processes that short-term studies cannot detect, including dispersal, reproductive structure, and environmental responses across multiple life stages.
As datasets grow, they will improve understanding of:
- Population viability
- Genetic connectivity
- Habitat use under environmental change
- Responses to land-use pressure
These insights are essential for developing evidence-based conservation strategies for one of Africa’s most elusive mammals.
Pangolin ecology is difficult to study, but long-term field research provides one of the few reliable pathways to understanding how these animals persist in changing landscapes. At Okonjima, sustained monitoring is gradually revealing the ecological structure of a species that is otherwise almost invisible in the wild. This work contributes not only to academic knowledge but also to practical conservation planning for Temminck’s ground pangolin across southern Africa.
How Far Does a Pangolin Travel? Eight Years of Research at Okonjima
International Day for Biological Diversity 2026: How Local Conservation at Okonjima Nature Reserve Supports Global Biodiversity Goals
Brown Hyena Research at Okonjima: Ecology, Behaviour, and Conservation
The Emerging importance of Private Reserves for Wildlife Conservation
AfriCat Foundation in 2025: Advancing Long-Term Predator and Pangolin Research at Okonjima
From Rescue to Research: The Evolution of AfriCat